| Singapore: Water and Sanitation | ||
|---|---|---|
| Data | ||
| Access to an improved water source | 100% (2008) [1] | |
| Access to improved sanitation | 100% (2008) [1] | |
| Continuity of supply (%) | 100 | |
| Average urban water use (l/c/d) | 155 (2009) [2] | |
| Average urban water tariff (US$/m3) | US$1.29 (S$1.62, 2010, for a consumption of 20m3 per month) | |
| Share of household metering | 100% | |
| Annual investment in WSS | ||
| Share of self-financing by utilities | 100% | |
| Share of tax-financing | None | |
| Share of external financing | Private commercial financing through BOTs | |
| Institutions | ||
| Decentralization | No | |
| National water and sanitation company | Yes, the Public Utilities Board (PUB) | |
| Water and sanitation regulator | None | |
| Responsibility for policy setting | Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources | |
| Sector law | ||
| Number of urban service providers | 1 | |
Water supply and sanitation in Singapore is characterized by a number of achievements in the challenging environment of a densely populated island. Access to water is universal, affordable, efficient and of high quality. Innovative integrated water management approaches such as the reuse of reclaimed water, the establishment of protected areas in urban rainwater catchments and the use of estuaries as freshwater reservoirs have been introduced along with seawater desalination in order to reduce the country's dependence on imported water. In 2007 Singapore's water and sanitation utility, the Public Utilities Board, received the Stockholm Industry Water Award for its holistic approach to water resources management.[3]
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Singapore's first reservoir was the MacRitchie reservoir, which was built by the British in 1867. Subsequently, as Singapore developed into a modern city, more sources of water were needed to sustain the city’s growth. Thus two local reservoirs were added to the rapidly modernising colonial city. After independence in 1965, the Public Utilities Board took over the control of basic supplies including water. From then on, there have been many developments and improvements to increase the water supply for Singapore. The 1960s and 1970s saw great development for Singapore. In order to maintain that, many big water projects were embarked upon to increase the water supply. Examples of these projects included the Kranji-Pandan Scheme, the Upper Pierce Project and the Western Catchment Water Scheme.
In 2001 the Public Utilities Board, which had previously been in charge of water supply only, was given the responsibility for sanitation as well which had previously been directly provided by the Ministry of Environment. The change facilitated the implementation of an integrated water management approach. In 2002 Singapore inaugurated its first reclaimed water plant after a monitoring period of two years to ensure safe water quality. In 2005 it opened its first desalination plant. By the time the long-term water supply agreement with Malaysia expires in 2061, Singapore wants to be self-sufficient in terms of water supply, with reclaimed water meeting 40% and desalination 30% of its needs in addition to the 20% supplied by internal catchments.
The water resources of Singapore are especially precious given the small amount of land and territory in Singapore's geography while having a large urban population in the city-state. Without natural freshwater lakes, Singapore relies on four water sources:
This "four tap" strategy aims to reduce reliance on supply from Malaysia by increasing the volume supplied from the three other sources, or "national taps".
Two thirds of the country's surface area are classified as partly protected catchment areas with certain restrictions on land use, so that the rainwater can be collected and used as drinking water. As of 2010, the water supply system included 19 raw water reservoirs, 9 treatment works and 17 service reservoirs for treated water. The largest reservoir, the Marina Bay reservoir inaugurated in 2008, is in the estuary of a river that has been closed off by a barrage to keep the seawater out. Two similar barrages are due to be completed in 2011 and will form the Punggol Reservoir and the Serangoon Reservoir.
For decades, Singapore has relied on importation from Johor state in Malaysia to supply half of its water consumption. As of 2009, imported water had been reduced to 40% of total consumption.[4] Two water supply agreements between Malaysia and the British crown colony Singapore were signed in 1961 and 1962 respectively. The first agreement is due to expire in 2011, the second in 2061. Under these agreements the price of water is set at a very low level of less than 1 cent per 1,000 imperial gallons (4,500 L). The two countries are in disagreement about the future price of water. In the absence of a resolution, the government of Singapore decided to increase self-sufficiency in its water supply.
NEWater is the brand name given to reclaimed water produced by Singapore's public utilities. More specifically, it is treated wastewater (sewage) that has been purified using dual-membrane (via microfiltration and reverse osmosis) and ultraviolet technologies, in addition to conventional water treatment processes.
As of 2008, there are five NEWater factories, located at the Bedok, Kranji, and Seletar, Ulu Pandan and Changi Water Reclamation Plants, producing 50 million imperial gallons (230,000 m3) per day. Some of the NEWater is used at wafer fabrication plants and other non-potable applications in industries. The rest is fed into nearby reservoirs. NEWater is currently able to meet 30% of Singapore's water requirements.[5][6]
The Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS), a 48-km long deep tunnel sewer that runs 20 to 55 metres below ground, channels used water to a centralised water reclamation plant for treatment. The treated used water will then be discharged into the sea or further purified into NEWater. The deep tunnel works entirely by gravity, eliminating the need for pumping stations, and thus the risks of used water overflows. At one-third the size of conventional plants, the Changi Water Reclamation Plant is designed to be compact. Centralisation of used water treatment at Changi also allows for economies of scale. Until DTSS will be completed, wastewater is collected through a sewer system that includes 139 pumping stations that pump water to six wastewater treatment plants. These pumping stations and plants will be decommissioned when the DTSS will become operational.[7]
On 13 September 2005, the country opened its first desalination plant by SingSpring. SingSpring is majority-owned by CitySpring Infrastructure Trust (CitySpring). The plant, located at Tuas, can produce 30 million imperial gallons (140,000 m3) of water each day. Worth S$200 million, it is one of the biggest in the world and meets 10 percent of the country's water needs.[8] The plant also produces bottled water called the Desal H2O. A bid for a second desalination plant with a capacity of 318,500 m³ per day, also located at Tuas, was launched in June 2010.[9] The government has identified five coastal sites for future plants, with the objective of bringing the installed capacity to one million m³ per day by 2060.
Some observers have suggested that Singapore could become the world's water hub for water recycling and desalination technology and could export this technology to the world including China.[10] Dr Masaru Kurihara, director of the International Desalination Association, said that with the new technology in water reclamation, waste water would become the most important sustainable water resource in the future.
There have also been campaigns to urge people to conserve water, reducing consumption from 165 litres per person per day in 2003 to 155 litres in 2009. The target is to lower it to 140 litres by 2030.[2] The level of water losses - more precisely defined as non-revenue water - is one of the lowest in the world at only 5%.
Within the government of Singapore the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources is in charge of policy setting for water and sanitation. The Public Utilities Board, a statutory board under the Ministry, is in charge of service provision.
Water tariffs in Singapore are set at a level allowing cost recovery, including capital costs. In 2005 PUB issued for the first time a bond, raising S$400 million, to finance part of its investment program. Water tariffs also provide incentives for water conservation. They include a water conservation tax whose proceeds go directly to the government. The tax is set at 30%, but a 45% tax level applies to domestic consumption above 40m3 per month and connection.[11] As of 2010 the domestic water tariff without taxes was set at S$1.17/m3 for consumption below 40m3 per month and connection, and at S$1.40/m3 for higher consumption. The sewerage tariff (called "waterborne fee") is S$0.30/m3 for domestic users independent of consumption. The water and sewerage tariff including the conservation tax (30%) and general service tax (7%) thus is about S$1.62, to which a fixed tariff of S$3 per chargeable fitting and per month has to be added. A household consuming 20m3 per month and three chargeable fittings thus would face a bill of S$41.54 per month or S$2.08 per m3 (US$1.62/m3). This residential tariff is much lower than tariffs in some European countries such as Germany. Industrial water tariffs are set even lower at S$0.43/m3.[12] Water tariffs were raised substantially in the late 1990s, so that the average monthly domestic bill including taxes increased from S$13 in 1996 to S$30 in 2000.[11]
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